Date

Nanotechnology Milestone

Explanation

1857

Michael Faraday discovers colloid gold

Michael Faraday introduced ‘colloidal gold’ samples to the Royal Society. This suspension of gold nanoparticles in solution was totally transparent in some lighting, but in other lighting conditions could produce differently coloured solutions of ‘ruby, green, violet or blue’.

(Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society, 1857, 147, 145)

1905

Albert Einstein explains the existence of colloids

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein provided a thoroughly quantitative theory for the state of a colloid dispersion. He considered colloids to behave as ‘big atoms’ and explained their movement in terms of Brownian motion.

This theory was confirmed by the experiments of Jean-Baptiste Perrin, which contributed toward Perrin’s 1926 Nobel prize.

1932

Langmuir discovers layers of atoms one molecule thick

Langmuir established the existence of monolayers (layers of atoms or molecules one atom thick). These monolayers have peculiar two-dimensional qualities, and led to the development of a totally transparent glass produced by forming a thin film of fluorine compound on the surface.

He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1932 for this work on thin films.

1958

Feynman suggests that there is ‘plenty of room’ to work at the nanoscale

Richard P. Feynman gave a ground-breaking speech ‘There’s plenty of room at the bottom’ where he discussed the possibility of controlling materials at the level of atoms and molecules – this was the first vision of the possibilities of science and technology at the nanoscale.

He became a Nobel laureate in 1965.

1974

The word ‘nanotechnology’ first used

The term ‘nanotechnology’ was coined in 1974 by Norio Taniguchi of the University of Tokyo. He used the word to refer to ‘production technology to get the extra high accuracy and ultra fine dimensions, i.e. the preciseness and fineness on the order of 1 nm (nanometre)’

(‘On the Basic Concept of “NanoTechnology”’, Proceedings of the International Conference of Production Engineering, 1974)

1981

IBM invent a machine which can move single atoms around

Gerd Binning and Heinrich Rohrer invented the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) at IBM. This microscope allows atomic-scale three-dimensional profiles of surfaces to be obtained. The microscope relies on a tip that is positioned within 2nm of the surface and measures the electron density of the surface.

They were awarded the Nobel prize in 1986 for this work.

1985

A new form of carbon is discovered: C60

Richard Smalley, Robert Curl and Harold Kroto discovered C60 while investigating the outer atmosphere of stars, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1996.

Officially known as buckminsterfullerene, C60 is more commonly known as a buckyball as the 60 carbon atoms are arranged into a sphere made of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons (exactly like a football).

1990

IBM demonstrate ability to control the position of atoms

IBM logo in atoms

IBM research scientist Don Eigler showed that the position of atoms could be controlled precisely. Using the STM he maneuvered 35 xenon atoms on a nickel surface so that they spelled out ‘IBM’. This was achieved at high vacuum and in the supercooled temperature of liquid helium.

1991

Carbon nanotubes discovered

Sumino Iijima discovered a process to make ‘graphitic carbon needles ranging from 4nm to 30nm in diameter and 1 micron in length’ (Nature 354, 1991, 56). The needle-like tubes he described consisted of multiple sheets of graphite rolled into hollow tubes, which have now become known as carbon nanotubes. In 1993 the first single-walled nanotubes (SWNT) were produced.

1993

First high-quality quantum dots prepared

Murray, Norris and Bawendi synthesise the first high quality quantum dots of nearly monodisperse CdS CdSe and CdTe (Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1993, 115).

Quantum dots are very small particles with interesting optical properties: they absorb normal white light and, depending on their size, emit a range of bright colours. This property arises directly from the very small size of the particle.

1997

Nanotransistor built

Lucent Technologies fabricated the ‘nanotransistor’ – a complete metal oxide semiconductor transistor. It was only 60nm wide, consisted of sources, drain, gate and gate oxide and improved the key measures of performance. The key advance was being able to fabricate a 1.2nm thick gate oxide layer. Other companies have since built smaller nanotransistors.

2000

DNA motor made

DNA Motor

The first DNA motor was created by Lucent Technologies with Oxford University. These devices are similar to motorised tweezers and have the potential to make computers 1,000 more powerful than today’s machines.

The hope is that DNA motors can be attached to electrically conducting molecules to assemble rudimentary circuits by acting as switches (Nature 406 (6796), 2000, 605-608).

2001

Prototype fuel cell made using nanotubes

Nanohorns, irregularly shaped nanotubes, were developed as fuel cell for hydrogen-based fuel such as methanol. They group together creating a high surface area ideal for catalysts. NEC corporation announced that the latest generation weigh under 2 pounds, when fully fuelled, and power a laptop for 5 hours before needing refuelling.

2002

Stain-repellent trousers reach the high street

Clothing embedded with nanoparticles that produce a stain-repellent coating has been developed. Nano-care™ khakis have the fabric fibres coated with nanowhiskers 10–100nm in length. This new stain-repellent fabric is available from a number of high street retailers and is available in trousers, shirts and ties.

2003

Prototype nano-solar cells produced

Prototype solar cells have been made by Nanosolar Inc. in California. They use conducting polymers and nano-based particles. This technology has great advantages, compared to that for traditional silicon-based solar cells, including making the products much cheaper and easier to make. These cells are also produced in flexible sheets, making them suitable for many applications.

2004

Research and development continues to advance

Research and development in many nanotechnology fields continues apace; some recent developments include the following:

Nanospectra Bioscience has used gold-coated nanoshells to destroy cancer tumours in mice (Cancer Letters, 209, 171).

NanoScale Materials Inc. has developed a family of non-toxic nano-engineered products that counteract a variety of chemical warfare agents and toxic chemicals.